An Overview of Waste Management in the EU

The Waste Shipments Regulation, Landfill Directive, and Waste Framework Directive are just a few examples of the key regulations addressing waste generation and treatment within the EU. These policies are central to the EU's environmental strategy, reflecting growing concern over resource efficiency and the ecological impact of economic activities. In this article, we will review waste management in the EU, taking a closer look at the generation and treatment of waste across its Member States.

Waste: a policy challenge

Waste is defined under Directive 2008/98/EC as “any substance or object which the holder discards or intends or is required to discard”. Waste represents not only a loss of material and energy resources, but also an environmental hazard if not properly managed. For instance, landfilling may cause pollution to air, water and soil, while incineration can emit harmful air pollutants.

The EU’s waste management policies are designed to minimise the negative effects of waste on both the environment and human health, while also promoting the efficient use of resources across the region. In the long run, these policies aim to reduce the volume of waste being produced. When waste cannot be avoided it is treated as a valuable resource, with a focus on increasing recycling rates and ensuring that any necessary disposal is done safely.

Who generates waste?

According to Eurostat’s latest data, the EU generated a total of 2,233 million tonnes of waste in 2022, equivalent to 4.99 tonnes per person. But where does all this waste come from?

In 2022, waste generation in the EU was primarily driven by:

• Construction (38.4%)
  
  
• Mining and quarrying (22.7%)
  
  
• Waste and water services (10.5%)
  
  
• Manufacturing (10.4%)
  
  
• Households (8.9%)
  
  
• Other activities, including services and energy (9.2%)

The per capita waste generation varied significantly across Member States. For example, Finland recorded nearly 20 tonnes of waste per person, four times the EU average. This disparity is largely attributed to high levels of mineral waste from sectors like mining and construction.

Major mineral waste

Major mineral waste accounted for 64% of the EU’s total waste in 2022, or approximately 3.2 tonnes per person. Countries such as Finland, Romania, Sweden, and Luxembourg reported the highest shares of this category, reflecting their economic reliance on extraction and/or construction industries.

Waste excluding major mineral waste

When excluding major mineral waste, the EU generated 795 million tonnes of waste in 2022, about 1.8 tonnes per inhabitant. There was notable variation across countries: Estonia produced 7.5 tonnes per person, while Romania, Latvia, and Malta each generated around 1.1 tonnes per person. Estonia's high figure stems from energy production based on oil shale.

By sector, the top contributors to this category were:

• Waste and water services (216 million tonnes)
  
  
• Households (193 million tonnes)
  
  
• Manufacturing (166 million tonnes)
  
  

Interestingly, between 2004 and 2022, waste from manufacturing decreased by 30.7%, while waste from households and waste and water services increased by 10.6% and 187.2%, respectively.

Hazardous waste

Hazardous waste poses significant risks if not managed and disposed of safely. In 2022, hazardous waste represented 5.3% of the total waste generated in the EU, amounting to 119 million tonnes. This marks a 31.1% increase compared to 2010. Finland contributed significantly to this rise, with an almost eightfold increase between 2020 and 2022. National shares of hazardous waste ranged from 0.7% in Romania to 24.6% in Finland, with Türkiye leading among non-EU countries at 24.8%.

Waste treatment trends

In 2022, the EU treated 1.992 billion tonnes of waste. This figure covers waste imported into the EU for treatment but excludes any waste that was exported. As a result, these numbers are not directly comparable to the total amount of waste generated in the EU. Of this:

• 61.4% underwent recovery, broken down as:
  
  
  
  • Recycling: 40.8%
    
    
  • Backfilling: 14.2%
    
    
  • Energy recovery: 6.4%
    
    
• 38.6% was subject to disposal, which included:
  
  
  
  • Landfilling: 30.2%
    
    
  • Incineration without energy recovery: 0.4%
    
    
  • Other disposal methods: 8%

This marks a major shift from 2004, when only 45.9% was recovered. In contrast, disposal fell from 54.1% to 38.6% over the same period.

National approaches varied significantly. Countries like Italy, Belgium, Slovakia, and Latvia excelled in recycling, whereas Romania, Bulgaria, and Finland relied heavily on landfilling.

Hazardous waste treatment

Of the 99.6 million tonnes of hazardous waste treated in the EU:

• 36.4% was recovered, broken down as:
  
  
  
  • Recycling or backfilling: 30.0% (67 kg per capita)
    
    
  • Energy recovery: 6.4% (14 kg per capita)
    
    
• 63.6% was disposed of, comprising:
  
  
  
  • Landfilling: 41.0% (91 kg per capita)
    
    
  • Incineration without energy recovery: 4.1% (9 kg per capita)
    
    
  • Other disposal methods: 18.5% (41 kg per capita)
    
    

More than 70% of the EU's hazardous waste was treated in just four countries: Finland (29.5%), Germany (21.5%), Bulgaria (13.7%), and France (7.5%).

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The EU is steadily advancing towards more sustainable waste management. While recovery rates are on the rise and disposal is declining, significant challenges remain, particularly in reducing hazardous waste volumes and achieving consistent performance across Member States. With its ambitious European Green Deal, the EU aims to foster a more circular economy, where waste is seen not as an endpoint but as a resource for future value creation.

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